Month: June 2022

The place

The Sacrosanta Cattedrale Papale Arcibasilica Romana Maggiore del Santissimo Salvatore e dei Santi Giovanni Battista ed Evangelista al Laterano, this is the full name of the basilica, is the church in Rome directly governed by Pope Francis, although he does not actually preside over it personally, but through a cardinal delegate.

Where it is located

The Basilica is located in the heart of ancient Rome, in the famous Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano, a well-known landmark for left-wing political demonstrations and the famous May Day concert.

History

Entering the Basilica of St John Lateran, you should know that you are about to step on the ground of the oldest and most important basilica in the western world. Built during the fourth century, it was consecrated by Pope Sylvester Iin the year 324 AD.

Features

However, the Basilica as you can admire it today is the result of successive architectural interventions over the centuries.

The main façade was built in 1732, designed by architect Alessandro Galilei. The top of the façade is dominated by a marble group dominated by a Christ with the cross, surrounded by some holy bishops of the Eastern and Western Churches. Also worth noting is the impressive mosaic already present in the early Christian basilica, depicting the figure of Jesus.

Inside, the basilica has five naves. Looking up from the nave, you can admire the coffered ceiling. In the pillars that accompany the nave to the altar, there are niches where you can admire the statues of the twelve Apostles. L'apse that you can admire today dates back to the 19th century and was commissioned by Pope Leo XIII, who had the previous one destroyed.

The vault features a majestic mosaic depicting the Virgin accompanied by several saints, including St Francis of Assisi.

The mysteries of the basilica

The basilica houses the tomb of Pope Sylvester II, successor in medieval times to Pope Sylvester I, whom we have mentioned. It is said that the tomb oozed water when the death of a pope was approaching. Only much later was the mystery solved, which is said to be due to the still intact presence of the Pope's body.
If you want to visit the basilica calmly and relax in a B&B in Rome after the exertions of the day then take advantage of the offers of the Aurelia GArden Gold B&B.

History of Rome - Legends

Romulus and Remus

(There are several writers who have told the story of the twins)
Near the banks of the Tiber, in a poor hut, lived an old shepherd and his wife: Fà ustolo and Laurence. One evening Fà ustolo sat wearily at the door of the hut while Laurence prepared the meagre evening meal. Suddenly, a rustling sound was heard from the woods, and over there, towards the river, a dark shadow slid down to the shore...
Faùstolo thought of going to see what had happened, told his wife to wait for him and cautiously advanced towards the bank of the Tiber. Due to the recent rains, the river was flooded in the fields and the ground was strewn with large pools of water. In one of those puddles, at the foot of a tree, Fà ustolo saw a huge she-wolf lying on its side and two children feeding on its milk. He thought he was dreaming. He slowly withdrew and returned to the hut where he started telling his incredulous wife about the she-wolf suckling the twins, then took her by the arm and dragged her out to the river. Shortly afterwards, the two little foundlings rested in the warmth of Fà ustolo and Laurenzia's hut where they soon grew up and in a few years became two strong boys, a little wild but good. Fà ustolo had named them Romulus and Remus; and they respected him like a father, every day they went further away from the hut, in search of new adventures...

This is the story of the writer Gustavo Brigante Colonna. Legend has it, however, that once they grew up,Romulus and Remus knew their history, then they returned to Albalonga punished the cruel Amulius and freed the grandfather Numitore . Having obtained permission from him, they left Albalonga and went to the banks of the Tiber, where they had grown up, to found a new city. But which of the two would give it its name?
They decided to observe the flight of birds: whoever saw the most birds would give the city its name. Fortune favoured Romolo who took a plough and, on the Palatine Hill he drew a furrow to mark the city walls, which he called Rome . It was the day 21 April, 753 years before Jesus Christ was born. The birth of the new city unfortunately marked the end of Remus' life. It had been decreed that no one, under any circumstances, could pass beyond the furrow without the permission of the chief. But Remus, envious, or else in jest, leapt over it and, laughing, exclaimed: - Look how easy it is! - Romulus, filled with rage, hurled himself at Remus and, taking up his sword, killed him, exclaiming that anyone who offended the name of Rome must die. Romulus, left alone, ruled the city wisely, then one day, during a thunderstorm, he disappeared, abducted into the sky by the god Mars.

The Rape of the Sabine Women

Once the city was created, however, there was the problem of populating it: Romulus gathered shepherds from the surrounding areas, but lacked women. How to do this? He then thought of organising a feast, to which he invited the shepherds. Sabini with wives and daughters. While the feast was taking place amidst singing and dancing, at an agreed signal, the young Romans kidnapped the Sabine women and, armed with daggers, put the men to flight. The men returned a short time later, led by Titus Tatius, king of the Sabine tribe of the Curites, with the intention of freeing their women and taking revenge for the insult they had received. A young girl, Tarpea, opened the city gates for them: but she immediately paid for her gesture with an atrocious death, as she was crushed by the Romans' shields. Future generations would later give her name to the Tarpeian cliff, from which it became customary to throw the condemned to death. Having penetrated Rome, the Sabines launched themselves against the enemy warriors; but as soon as the battle began, the women intervened to obtain an armistice: in fact, many young girls had already become attached to the Roman spouses and could not tolerate the sight of that bloody battle in which their fathers and husbands were involved. The affair thus had a peaceful conclusion: Romulus and Titus Tatius reigned jointly over the city : Sabini e Romans merged into one people. From the name of Titus Tatius' tribe, the Curites, the Romans then derived the appellation of Quiriti.

Enea

About three thousand years ago, some ships, which had long been sailing the seas in search of a landing place, came in sight of an unknown land. These men were the only ones who had managed to escape from the terrible fire with which, after a long war, their city had been destroyed. They looked sad and tired, for years they had had to wander the seas in vain in search of a bit of rest and peace... And now before them lay a land that looked serene and welcoming. They came to a place where there was a majestic river that burst into the sea, mixing its tumultuous yellow waters with the blue waves. So when the chief gave the order, it was with true enthusiasm that they set out..... The men who were finally able to touch land were the Trojansand had landed in Lazio, on the banks of the river Tiber led by the valiant warrior Enea . He, whileTroy collapsed under the furious assault of the Greeks he had managed to rescue his father and his little son. But the father had died on the long journey; only his little son Ascanius remained.

The life and exploits of Enea are wonderfully narrated in the poem Aeneid written by the great poetVirgil Here we report only in part what are the most important episodes to proceed in the story of the foundation of Rome. Already at that time, Latium was populated by various populations: the Etruscans, the Volscians, the Sabines, the Equi, the Rùtuli and the Ausoni. The most important population, settled in a group of organised cities in the flat territory along the banks of the Tiber, were the Latins. The Trojans immediately came into contact with this people and their king, the wise Latins. He welcomed them with kindness, gave them hospitality and, some time later, offered Aeneas his own daughter Lavinia in marriage, who had already been betrothed to Turno, king of the Rútuli, who unleashed a war to avenge the offence he had received. It was a fierce war, which ended in a long duel between Aeneas and Turno, until the latter was killed. A long period of peace followed, during which Aeneas founded a city, Lavinium, in honour of his bride. Aeneas's son Ascanius, who had grown up, in turn founded the city of Albalonga. Many and many years after the death of Ascanius, the good Numitore. He had, however, a very wicked and envious brother named Amulius, who wanted to rule. To achieve his goal, he had Numitore imprisoned and forced Rea Silvia, his daughter, to become a priestess. Amulius could now consider himself safe and secure. For many years, he alone would be king. Shortly afterwards, however, the god Mars sent two twins, Romulus and Remus, to Rhea Silvia. Amulius, enraged, ordered them to be killed immediately. But he was destined to receive just punishment! The servant, entrusted with the cruel task, did not have the courage to commit such a serious crime: instead, he placed the two little brothers in a wicker basket and abandoned them in the waters of the Tiber, hoping that someone would save them. And salvation was not long in coming...

History of Rome - Civilisation in Roman times

The Company 

Roman society was divided mainly into patricians and plebeians. The rights and duties of these castes changed with the passage from one era to another.
Society in the Republican Era
The Roman population was divided into two groups: patricians and plebeians.
The patricians were the descendants of the oldest and most powerful families and owned a lot of land. The plebeians, on the other hand, were mostly artisans or peasants who worked the land of the patricians. The latter exercised political power; the plebeians, on the other hand, could not participate in government. The two communities were clearly distinct: the patricians married among themselves and did business only among themselves. The plebeians could only shorten the distance that divided them from the patricians in one way: by becoming clients (=obedients) of some patrician family. They offered their services and in return received protection from the head of the patrician family, who became their patron.
All those who descended (or thought they descended) from a common ancestor formed a gens, i.e. a lineage. The members of a gens felt deeply united by blood ties, although very often the common ancestor was legendary.
Within the gentes (plural of gens) there were then the families, quite similar to those of today. In them, the father exercised great authority over his wife and children.
Slaves were also part of the family. Each Roman had the name of the gens to which he belonged ( nomen ): those belonging to the Claudia line were all called Claudius. The nomen was preceded by the personal name ( praenomen ) and finally the nickname ( cognomen ) was added. The cognomen, many times, originated from a physical detail of the person or place of origin of his lineage. Thus every Roman citizen had three names.

Society in the Imperial Age

During the empire the social classes underwent an evolution that affected the nobles, the middle classes and the army. Among the nobles there was a change: the new rich had formed in the provinces and many of them had joined the senate. The signs of their wealth were their houses and sumptuous dinners. In the provincial towns the Romans favoured the formation of an active bourgeois class: landowners, merchants, professionals, state officials. Also included in the Roman bourgeoisie were the craftsmen who owned very active workshops, who gathered in professional organisations called 'colleges'.
The army also showed a high degree of efficiency under the Flavians and Antonines. Many provincials served in the legions, who obtained Roman citizenship at the end of their service. Being a soldier did not only mean fighting, but also colonising lands, building roads, bridges and fortifications, founding the first nucleus of future cities and supervising their civilisation and security.
The conditions of the Roman plebs, however, had not changed at all. The state still had to support almost 200,000 idlers, who demanded free food and free entertainment (panem et circenses) as a right. On the other hand, the emperors preferred to curry favour with the plebs in this way.

The History of Rome - The origins of its foundation

Many hypotheses have been put forward on the historical origins of Rome based on archaeological and glottological research. Some scholars argue for the existence of Rome even before Etruscan domination; others argue for an Etruscan origin.
Rome, a Latin-Sabian city .
For scholars who support this hypothesis, the first settlements in the Latin area date back to the 10th century B.C. and the city would have arisen, not by association, but by successive expansions of a primitive nucleus during the 9th and 13th centuries B.C.
Rome, an Etruscan city .
For the supporters of this hypothesis, there are traces of pre-Etruscan settlements on the Palatine, but these only represented confederations between villages. It was the Etruscans who first introduced the 'city-state' type in Italy. However, if Rome is not properly of Etruscan origin, the city constitution is certainly Etruscan.

The historical origins of Rome

According to tradition, the city of Rome was founded on 21 April 753 BC. In reality, it arose little by little, one district at a time. The first hill to be occupied was perhaps the Palatine, where a Latin colony settled around the 10th century on that very side overlooking the Tiber. At that point the river is divided by the Tiberina island, an obligatory point of passage not only for the trade that took place between north and south, but also for the trade that developed from the sea towards the interior of Latium and central Italy by river. The oldest archaeological remains found on the Palatine attest to the existence of a village of huts surrounded by an embankment: the square Rome of tradition. Not long afterwards, the gradual development of an economy of exchange urged the creation of trading emporiums, where incoming goods flowed in and those to be exported departed from. Subsequently, thanks to the conformation that nature had given the place, surrounding it with hills far from the sea, it became an ideal place to be safe from danger. It was thus that new Latin populations from the interior were induced to occupy other areas (Esquiline, Caelian, Quirinal and Capitoline) and to give rise between the 10th and 7th centuries BC. C. , to new villages. These, united in a sacred league, founded Rome and began, with a monarchical experience, the millennial history of the eternal city.

Routes in Rome - The Via Appia Antica (via the Claudian aqueduct to the Catacombs of S. Callisto)

"Regina Viarum': The Queen of Roads. This is what the ancient Romans called the Via Appia, a veritable highway of Antiquity. Started in 312 B.C. by Appius Claudius and finished in the 2nd century A.D., this consular road initially connected Rome with Capua and Benevento, but was completed as far as Taranto and Brindisi. This consular road initially connected Rome with Capua and Benevento, but when it was completed, it went as far as Taranto and Brindisi. Extraordinarily evocative is the typical Roman pavement, the Saxo quadrato; blocks of tufa and lava. that we can still walk along today.

For the Romans it was the trade route, but also the place to bury the dead. Here, in fact, are the tombs of the plebeians, the so-called 'Colombari'. , loculi shaped like the nests of pigeons, and the tombs of aristocratic families and great personalities, such as the Tomb of Cecilia Metella, that of the Curiazi and of the philosopher Seneca.

We come across the 16th-century church Domine Quo Vadis, erected on the site where, according to legend, St. Peter, having escaped from the Mamertine Prison, crossed paths with Jesus on his way to Rome. ("Lord, where are you going?"). The Lord replied "I am coming to Rome to be crucified again". Struck by these words, St. Peter decided to return to Rome and suffer martyrdom.

The great Arches of the Claudian Aqueduct frame the Roman countryside, now Park of the Aqueducts. The great aqueduct is one of the most photographed images in the world and an impressive and important example of Roman technique and skill. We stop among the remains of the Circus of Maxentius, which, during representations, housed up to 10,000 spectators.

It was from a tufa quarry on the Appian Way that the term catacomb was coined: a cavity that became an underground cemetery. The Catacombs of San Callisto are the largest and most monumental in Rome. They occupy an area of about 15 hectares and extend for more than 20 km of tunnels, exceeding a depth of 20 metres. Not to be missed is the Little Vatican, where the remains of 9 popes lie, and the Crypt of St Cecilia, the patron saint of music.

Itineraries in Rome - La Dolce Vita ( following in the footsteps of Fellini )

From Via Veneto, one of the most famous and elegant streets in the world, like the Champs Elysees in Paris or New York's Fifth Avenue, we begin our journey.
It was here, in the 1960s, that Fellini, the great director, immortalised international society with the film "La Dolce Vita". still today, among the exclusive cafes and hotels frequented by film stars and indiscreet paparazzi.

Along the way we visit the ancient ossuary of the Capuchin Friars in the Church of Santa Maria della Concezione and stop to do some shopping among the many windows of the Fashion Shops. At the end of the long descent, Piazza Barberini opens up.

In the centre of the large square is one of the most beautiful fountains in Rome - the Triton Fountain, an extraordinary Bernini masterpiece where Neptune stands supported by his dolphins.

On the nearby Via delle Quattro Fontane stands the Palazzo Barberini, one of the most important examples of Roman Baroque built by Bernini and Borromini.

The palace houses the National Gallery of Ancient Art, with important works such as Raphael's famous Fornarina.

Descending from Via del Tritone, we stop for a little relaxation and a coffee at Planet Hollywood. Walking along some characteristic narrow streets we suddenly see, in all its marble beauty, the masterpiece of NicolಠSalvi: the Trevi Fountain. It is here that la Dolce Vita, with the image of Anita Eckeberg in the centre of the fountain, between the Neptune and the two Tritons, had its triumph. As is tradition, we throw a coin into the waters of the Fountain to make sure we 'return to Rome'.

We reach Piazza Colonna, with at its centre
the Column of the same name erected by the Senate of Rome to commemorate the Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

The Piazza is overlooked by the seat of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers.

We pass by the Palazzo di Montecitorio, seat of Parliament, to reach
The Pantheon , one of the best preserved Roman monuments.

Itineraries in Rome - The Domus Aurea ( from Nero and Maecenas to the Baths of Caracalla )

The Domus Aurea, the mother of Roman dungeons.
Such a statement is certainly not far-fetched, since Nero's residence is the largest and most fascinating hypogeum that Rome preserves in the bowels of its land. The Domus Aurea still preserves intact the original paintings, the rooms of the alcove, those of the triclinium and the long cryptoporticus; all forming a veritable underground labyrinth in the web of which one can move almost only with the archaeological plan and not without some effort. Nero decided to build his palace, which according to him was to be the largest and most valuable in the world, after the famous fire of 64 AD that destroyed three regions and damaged four of the fourteen Augustan ones. The greatest damage was found among the hills Oppius, Fagutal and the Carinae. Nero decided to build his palace, which according to him was to be the largest and most valuable in the world, following the famous fire of 64 A.D. that destroyed three regions and damaged four of the fourteen Augustan ones. The greatest damage was found among the hills.Oppius, Fagutal and the Carinae. It was precisely in this area that the new palace, the Domus Aurea, was built. Suetonius pompously illustrates the Neronian residence and we must certainly give him credit if only we were to examine the surviving structures that were stripped of their richest elements before being concealed.during the time of Trajan. Already during the Flavian Empire the entire area had been largely altered, especially for the construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, which took the place of Nero's famous artificial lake. The pre-existing structures, on which the two architects Severus and Celerus worked actively, were only slightly altered and were inhabited at least until 104, when a fire destroyed them. Immediately afterwards, they were covered over to create the floor that would have housed the gigantic bulk of Trajan's baths.

Itineraries in Rome - The Acropolis of Rome ( The Circus Maximus, the Capitol and Piazza Venezia )

We start this afternoon tour from the largest building for games and shows of all time, the Circus Maximus . As big as 6 football pitches it housed over 250,000 spectators. We walk along the bank of the Tiber until we reach the first Roman port on the Tiber, the Tiberine Port from where foreign merchants disembarked their ships to bring their goods to the Foro Boario , Rome's main bull market.

In the Church of Santa Maria di Cosmedin , built over the remains of an ancient altar dedicated to Hercules, whose temple Hercules Victor , the oldest example of a Roman marble temple, can be seen a short distance away, we put our hand into the Mouth of Truth, the ancient mask that, according to medieval legend, used to bite liars. We are in the Velabro , the ancient swamp where the She-wolf, symbol of Rome, saved the twins Romulus and Remus. A glance at the great Arch of Janus and we are at the foot of the sacred hill: the Capitoline Hill.

After admiring the Insula, the typical 'condominium' of the Roman plebeians, which housed up to 400 people, we climb the famous staircase leading to the Aracoeli Church, built on the ruins of the temple of Juno Moneta (the ancient mint of the Romans), we arrive at the Piazza del Campidoglio . Described by the NY Times as the most beautiful square in the world, it is an astonishing concentration of artistic and architectural beauty. It owes its current appearance to Michelangelo: the large statues of Castor and Pollux introduce us to the central area where the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius stands. On either side are the splendid museums of the Palazzo dei Conservatori , the new Capitoline Museum (among the richest and oldest museums in the world) and the Tabularium where the city's Municipality resides.

At the foot of the Capitol we stop at the ancient Mamertine Prison where political prisoners were strangled and St Peter and St Paul the Patrons of Rome were imprisoned. As much as 60 million sesterces cost Julius Caesar the expropriation of the land where he had the Imperial Forums built. a universal symbol of archaeology. We walk among the ruins of the Forum of Peace, of Nerva, of Augustus and of Trajan up to the Trajan Column, called the Centenary Column (100 Roman feet high), which documents with its wrapping decorations the victories of the emperor over the Dacians.

t the end of the Fori Imperiali the last stop on the route, Piazza Venezia, the neurotic centre of everyday life. It is a curious sight to watch the traffic policeman directing traffic with his unmistakable mimicry. Overlooking the square is the Vittoriano , a gigantic monument to King Victor Emmanuel II, home of the Unknown Soldier and spectacular Belvedere. On the right is Palazzo Venezia , the historical seat of embassies and official residence of the Duce during the Fascist era.

Itineraries in Rome - The Great Patriarchal Basilicas (the pride of Christian culture)

The Pilgrim had to walk the 5 km that separated the Vatican from the Archbasilica of St. John is called the Cathedral of Rome and the Mother Church of Christianity . It was the Emperor Constantine, who had just converted to Christianity, who ceded the ownership of the Lateran Palaces to the Bishop of Rome in order to place the Cathedral there in 313, the year of the famous Edict of Milan where the Emperor promulgated freedom of religion for all citizens. Thus was erected the Basilica, which, within the architectural complex of the Lateran, was the official residence of the Popes for about a thousand years. The huge Piazza di San Giovanni , one of the largest and most beautiful squares in Rome, is now a venue for concerts, political and cultural events. In the centre the oldest Egyptian obelisk in Rome guides the Christian along his religious pilgrimage from one Basilica to another.

Much of the history of the Church was written in this basilica: several crusades were proclaimed, the first Holy Year and the Lateran Pacts signed. Under the building, the remains of the barracks of Emperor Constantine's horse guard are still visible. Over the centuries the Cathedral underwent great transformations and destruction, until in 1650 it was rebuilt by Borromini. The work was completed in 1740 with the erection, by the Florentine Alessandro Galilei, of the splendid façade where the Baroque and Neoclassical styles merge. Not to be missed are the Baptistery, from the age of Constantine, with its typical octagonal shape that has become a model for all the baptisteries in the Christian world, and the Cloisters dating back to 1220 with 125 small arches and typical twisted columns.

On the eastern side of the square is the Holy Staircase. According to mediaeval tradition, the 28 steps of the Staircase are precisely those of Pilate's Praetorium in Jerusalem that Jesus climbed and descended during His trial and on which He left traces of His blood. No foot may tread on this relic and the faithful may only climb the Holy Staircase on their knees.

The Holy Staircase leads to the Chapel of San Lorenzo or Sancta Sanctorum, so called because it houses some of the most sacred relics of Christianity. We stop to admire the Acherotipa image of Christ, of non-human origin, which in the Middle Ages was carried in procession to ward off the Plague.

We move on to the Esquiline Hill to admire the imposing Patriarchal Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore: the Basilica where different architectural styles blend most harmoniously. It was founded in 352 by Pope Liberius, on the very spot where the Virgin Mary had indicated to him in a dream that he would find snow. The coffered ceiling, the delightful Romanesque bell tower, the famous mosaics of the Coronation of the Virgin, the Sistine and Pauline Chapels are works of art not to be missed, as well as, the religious relic consisting of fragments of Sycamore that, according to legend, belonged to the manger that had been Jesus' cradle.

Our route starts from the splendid Piazza Risorgimento , the historic and neuralgic point of the city, from where, skirting the high walls surrounding the Vatican State, we approach the renovated entrance to the Vatican Museumsarranged for the occasion of the Holy Year 2000. What awaits us is the vision of one of the greatest and most magnificent art treasures of humanity . The Vatican Museums Rome are located within the splendid Renaissance palaces built by Popes such as Sixtus IV . Over the centuries the buildings were enlarged to contain the priceless works of art collected by the Popes and today also include the Sistine Chapel and the Raphael Rooms. We enter through the spectacular helicoidal staircase designed in 1932 by Giuseppe Momo. Roma Insieme proposes an itinerary inside the Museums with the idea of showing the most famous and extraordinarily beautiful works, but together with the Tutor, the Guest can choose a different thematic route.

We begin our tour at the Gregorian Egyptian Museum, and then move on to discover Classical Greek and Roman art, inside the Belvedere Palace. Here, in the Octagonal Courtyard, we can admire the Apoxyomenos (the Athlete), Canova's Perseus, the Herpes, the extraordinary Laocoon Group depicting the Trojan Priest fighting with his two sons against the serpent, and the Apollo of Belvedere, one of the most famous works of the classical world. Through the Sala degli Animali , a real marble zoo, we reach the first floor of the Gregorian Etruscan Museum, with a collection of objects, vases and jewellery from Etruscan tombs.

We continue through the Galleries of Candelabra, Tapestries and Maps to the Raphael Rooms. These four rooms were the private flats of Pope Julius II, who commissioned the great master to decorate them. The work lasted 16 years and brought the painter the same fame that Michelangelo had in those same years when he frescoed the Sistine Chapel. Past the Rooms of Constantine, Heliodorus, the Segnatura and the Fire of the Borgoentriamo in the Sistine Chapel.

Some of the greatest masters worked in the Sistine Chapel, named after Pope Sixtus IV, including Michelangelo, Perugino, Botticelli and Ghirlandaio who frescoed the two side walls with 12 paintings depicting scenes from the lives of Moses and Jesus. In the centre on the main altar wall is Michelangelo's masterpiece: the Last Judgement.
The artist worked on it for seven years alone, depicting the souls of the dead awaiting the Last Judgement. 226 metres of painted wall, 314 characters depicted including Michelangelo himself as St Bartholomew

Leaving the Sistine Chapel, we walk through the Braccio Nuovo gallery, where the works taken by Napoleon and returned in 1817 are located, and from the atrium of the four gates we reach the Vatican Picture Gallery, where we can admire the works of the greatest masters such as Giotto (Stefaneschi Polyptych), Caravaggio (The Deposition), Raphael (The Coronation of the Virgin), Fra Angelico, Gentile da Fabriano, Melozzo, Pinturicchio, Perugino and many others.